The Innovators: How a Group of Inventors, Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolutio - Isaacson Walter (книги полностью .txt) 📗

21. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 131.

22. Bardeen, “Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor,” Nobel Prize lecture.

23. Brattain oral history, AIP.

24. Brattain oral history, AIP.

25. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 1876.

26. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 4, 137.

27. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 139.

28. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 1934.

29. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

30. Brattain oral history, AIP.

31. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 148.

32. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

33. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”

34. Shockley, “The Invention of the Transistor”; Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1717.

35. Brattain interview, “Naming the Transistor,” PBS, 1999; Pierce interview, PBS, 1999.

36. Mervin Kelly, “The First Five Years of the Transistor,” Bell Telephone magazine, Summer 1953.

37. Nick Holonyak oral history, AIP, Mar. 23, 2005.

38. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 207; Mark Burgess, “Early Semiconductor History of Texas Instruments,” https://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/Home/us-semiconductor-manufacturers/ti.

39. Gordon Teal talk, “Announcing the Transistor,” Texas Instruments strategic planning conference, Mar. 17, 1980.

40. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 211; Regency TR1 manual, http://www.regencytr1.com/images/Owners%20Manual%20-%20TR-1G.pdf.

41. T. R. Reid, The Chip (Simon & Schuster, 1984; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 2347.

42. Regency trivia page, http://www.regencytr1.com/TRivia_CORNER.html.

43. Brattain oral history, AIP.

44. John Bardeen to Mervin Kelly, May 25, 1951; Ronald Kessler, “Absent at the Creation,” Washington Post magazine, Apr. 6, 1997; Pines, “John Bardeen.”

45. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 3059; Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2579.

46. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 231 and passim.

47. Arnold Thackray and Minor Myers, Arnold O. Beckman: One Hundred Years of Excellence, vol. 1 (Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2000), 6.

48. Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobs (Simon & Schuster, 2011), 9.

49. Sources for the passages on Silicon Valley include Leslie Berlin’s The Man Behind the Microchip: Robert Noyce and the Invention of Silicon Valley (Oxford, 2005; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 1332 and passim. Berlin is the project historian for the Silicon Valley Archives at Stanford and is writing a book on the rise of Silicon Valley. Also: Rebecca Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (University of California, 1997); Michael Malone, The Intel Trinity (HarperBusiness, 2014), Infinite Loop (Doubleday, 1999), The Big Score: The Billion Dollar Story of Silicon Valley (Doubleday, 1985), The Valley of Heart’s Delight: A Silicon Valley Notebook, 1963–2001 (Wiley, 2002), Bill and Dave (Portfolio, 2007); Christophe Lecuyer, Making Silicon Valley (MIT, 2007); C. Stewart Gillmore, Fred Terman at Stanford: Building a Discipline, a University, and Silicon Valley (Stanford, 2004); Margaret Pugh O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley (Princeton, 2005); Thomas Heinrich, “Cold War Armory: Military Contracting in Silicon Valley,” Enterprise & Society, June 1, 2002; Steve Blank, “The Secret History of Silicon Valley,” http://steveblank.com/secret-history/.

50. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1246; Reid, The Chip, 1239. In addition to these two sources and those cited below, the section draws on my interviews with Gordon Moore and Andy Grove; Shurkin, Broken Genius; Michael Malone, The Intel Trinity (Harpers, 2014); Tom Wolfe, “The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce,” Esquire, Dec. 1983; Bo Lojek, History of Semiconductor Engineering (Springer, 2007); notebooks and items in the Computer History Museum; Robert Noyce oral history, conducted by Michael F. Wolff, IEEE History Center, Sept. 19, 1975; Gordon Moore oral history, conducted by Michael F. Wolff, IEEE History Center, Sept. 19, 1975; Gordon Moore oral history, conducted by Daniel Morrow, Computerworld Honors Program, Mar. 28, 2000; Gordon Moore and Jay Last oral history, conducted by David Brock and Christophe Lecuyer, Chemical Heritage Foundation, Jan. 20, 2006; Gordon Moore oral history, conducted by Craig Addison, SEMI, Jan. 25, 2008; Gordon Moore interview, conducted by Jill Wolfson and Teo Cervantes, San Jose Mercury News, Jan. 26, 1997; Gordon Moore, “Intel: Memories and the Microprocessor,” Daedalus, Spring 1966.

51. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2980, from Fred Warshorfsky, The Chip War (Scribner’s Sons, 1989).

52. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 276.

53. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 432, 434.

54. Wolfe, “The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce.”

55. Robert Noyce interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; Malone, The Big Score, 74.

56. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 552; Malone, Intel Trinity, 81.

57. Leslie Berlin writes that the transistors did not arrive until 1950, after Noyce graduated: “[Bell’s research head] Buckley did not have any devices to spare, but he did send Gale copies of several technical monographs that Bell Labs had written on the transistor. These monographs formed the basis of Noyce’s initial exposure to the device. No textbooks addressed transistors, and (although prevailing mythology claims otherwise) Bell Labs did not ship Gale a transistor until after Noyce graduated” (The Man Behind the Microchip, 650). Berlin cites as her source for this a March 1984 letter written by Professor Gale to a friend; Berlin writes in an endnote, “Gale mentions an ‘attached original shipping invoice [for the transistors, sent from Bardeen to Gale] dated March 6, 1950’ (now lost).” Berlin’s reporting conflicts with Noyce’s recollections. Noyce’s quote that “Grant Gale got hold of one of the first point contact transistors . . . during my junior year” is from Noyce’s September 1975 IEEE History Center oral history, cited above. Tom Wolfe’s Esquire profile of Noyce, based on his visits with Noyce, reports, “By the fall of 1948 Gale had obtained two of the first transistors ever made, and he presented the first academic instruction in solid-state electronics available anywhere in the world, for the benefit of the eighteen students [including Noyce] majoring in physics at Grinnell College” (“The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce”). Reid, The Chip, 1226, based on his 1982 interviews with Robert Noyce, writes, “Gale had been a classmate of John Bardeen in the engineering school at the University of Wisconsin, and thus he was able to obtain one of the first transistors and demonstrate it to his students. It was not a lecture the student was to forget. ‘It hit me like the atom bomb,’ Noyce recalled forty years later.” Bardeen and other engineers at Bell Labs did send out many transistor samples to academic institutions that requested them beginning in July 1948.

58. Reid, The Chip, 1266; Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1411.

59. Gordon Moore interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

60. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.

61. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 239.

62. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1469.

63. Jay Last interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.

64. Malone, Intel Trinity, 107.

65. Jay Last interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1649; Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 246.